Taking Center Stage – Act II (TCSII)

A Portal for Middle Grades Educators

DOCUMENT LIBRARY

English Language Learners

 Adapted from Chapter 10 of Taking Center Stage, Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2001, pp.155-171.

Schools in California have always been comprised of linguistically diverse students. However, the dramatic increase of students with a remarkable variety of linguistic and cultural differences over the last two decades has presented a significant challenge to educators in providing an excellent educational experience to all students.

California’s diverse student population comes from many different ethnic groups, speaks a variety of languages and dialects, varies in English proficiency, and comes to school with a variety of experiences, academic and nonacademic. The state Language Census for 2004-05 revealed that 2.66 million students enrolled in California public schools have a primary language other than English and 1.59 million are identified as English learners. English learners represent 25.1 percent of the total California school enrollment as reported by their school districts in 2004-05. The five languages most commonly reported for English learners are Spanish (85.3prcent), Vietnamese (2.2percent), Hmong (1.4percent), Cantonese (1.4percent), and Filipino (1.3percent).

All students with a home language other than English are provided an instructional program targeted to their English language proficiency level if they meet designated criteria and are identified as English learners.

If the Home Language Survey, completed by parents/guardians upon students’ initial enrollment in a California school, indicates a language other than English, students are assessed with the California English Language Development Test (CELDT). Assessment results determine whether a student is EL or Fluent English Proficient (FEP). (EC 60810) CELDT results are reported according to the five proficiency levels approved by the State Board of Education (beginning, early intermediate, intermediate, early advanced, advanced) and form the basis for measuring student improvement in acquiring listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in English. However, the effective use of CELDT data requires a thorough understanding of how CELDT results are to be interpreted and how to use them to identify learning needs. For a more complete description of the scoring and reporting process for the CELDT see the CELDT Assistance Packet for School Districts/Schools, posted on the CDE Web site.

Students who demonstrate on the CELDT that they have difficulties in speaking, reading, writing or understanding the English language that may impede the individuals’ successful achievement in the classroom, are considered to be English learners and must receive instruction designed to meet their individual linguistic and academic needs. In addition to identifying students as EL, the CELDT is used.

• To determine the level of English language proficiency of pupils who are English learners
• To annually assess the progress of English learners in acquiring the skills of listening speaking, reading and writing in English.

The CELDT is aligned to the English language development (ELD) standards adopted by the State Board of Education, found on the CDE Web site at Administrative Forms and Documents.

From the earliest stages of their academic career and in concert with direct instruction, English learners should be provided with understandable and meaningful experiences in English that  enable the students to communicate effectively with peers and adults and to participate fully  in the academic program.1 “For these pupils to have access to quality education, their special needs must be met by teachers who have essential skills and knowledge related to English language development, specially designed content instruction delivered in English…” Education Code 44253.

Organizing for Success

Significant numbers of English learners are enrolled in the middle grades, and schools need to accommodate their needs. School district administrative staff as well school site staff share the important role to assist English learners to effectively acquire English language skills and to develop their capacity to fully succeed in the mainstream classroom. Based on the school district’s criteria of reasonable fluency in English, EL are placed in structured English immersion (SEI) or English-language mainstream (ELM) program settings. Developing a comprehensive plan at a school site that identifies and then meets the learning needs of all English learners requires the collaborative effort of  administrators, teachers, and other staff members involved in providing the instructional program such as:

• Principal or designee
• Classroom Teachers
• Resource teacher
• Grade level chairs
• Content specialists
• Guidance counselors

The primary goal for teachers of EL students is two-fold:

• To help their students become proficient in the English language and
• To ensure that their students meet state-adopted standards in the core curriculum.

Two sets of interdependent state standards guide teachers in determining appropriate instructional strategies for accomplishing this goal. In California, these standards are the English Language Development  (ELD) Standards, approved by the State Board of Education (SBE) in 1999 and the Content Standards (English-language arts, mathematics, history/social science, science and visual and performing arts)). In order to ensure that EL have full and equal access to a school district’s educational program,  EL must receive  both ELD and ELA.

The ELD standards state explicitly what EL need to know and be able to do as they move through the proficiency levels toward fluent English proficiency. State and federal laws require that all EL be provided with ELD defined as direct, systematic, explicit development of vocabulary, grammar, comprehension and expression in both oral and written domains of English using a curriculum and instructional methods appropriate for second language learners. EL are to receive instruction specifically designed to enable students at each proficiency level to acquire academic English rapidly, efficiently, and effectively.

English language development instruction is required for all English learners, from the beginning level of English proficiency to the advanced. It is critical to provide students with the academic language required in the more advanced levels of English proficiency so they can fully participate in the core curriculum and master the content standards.

The content standards were designed to encourage the highest achievement of every student, by defining the knowledge, concepts, and skills that students should acquire at each grade level. The English–language arts content standards describe what students, including English learners should know and be able to do at each grade level in English-only classrooms. These content standard are supported and amplified through the Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools-Kindergarten through Grade twelve.

Together, the ELD standards, the content standards and the framework form the foundation for decisions about curriculum, instructional strategies and materials and assessments in California public schools. The EL related sections of the framework recommend instructional strategies, instructional support in reading and writing, alignment of instruction and assessment, differentiated instruction through pacing and complexity and grouping as an aid to instruction. As in the English –language arts framework, state frameworks for all core subject area provide assistance for teachers.

Current core instructional materials for grades six through eight, adopted by the SBE provide the third component of the state’s three-pronged system for improving the academic achievement of all students, including English learners. The first component, the standards, identify what students should know and be able to do in every core subject and at each grade level. The second component, state curriculum frameworks provide the contextual structure for relating identified state standards to curriculum and instruction. The third component, core instructional materials provide the necessary tools for teaching, assessing and supporting instructional goals. In addition to teaching skills and knowledge for specific content areas, most SBE-adopted core materials feature embedded assessments for diagnosing student learning needs and suggested interventions for use as needed.

English Language Development

English language development (ELD) instruction for all English learners is to be delivered by a teacher authorized to provide EL services. ELD should target the student’s level of proficiency (beginning, early intermediate, intermediate, early advanced, or advanced) and include many opportunities for student-to-student practice at that proficiency level as well as systematic teaching of language skills at the next level of proficiency. English-language development (ELD) requires purposeful, daily instruction during specific times. Although there are many opportunities in a language-rich classroom environment for language learning, merely being exposed to, even engaged in, activity in English is not sufficient to ensure the development of full academic language proficiency. The state ELD standards emphasize the connection of ELD and literacy and encourage reading and writing instruction early in learning English with an emphasis on direct teaching of new language concepts, greater attention to the features of English language, increased practice of complex language skills, and appropriate corrective feedback within the context of meaningful and rich language learning and interaction.2

The California Reading and Literature Project, in its Professional Development Institute for Teachers of English Learners, proposes that ELD include:

• Forms—grammatical structures and word usage
• Fluency—ease of comprehension (listening and reading) and production (speaking and writing)
• Functions—purposes and uses of language (e.g., make statements, joke, inquire, compare) in formal and informal settings
• Vocabulary development

Although many EL may be appear proficient in the basic language skills used in everyday social interaction, they frequently lack the specialized subject-matter vocabulary unique to each area of the curriculum and the generalized academic language functions, structures, and vocabulary needed to master standards at the middle grades. English learners entering middle school with strong literacy skills in their primary language have the advantage of being able to concentrate on acquiring and learning academic language functions.

Academic language is defined in the Reading/Language Arts Framework as “the language of literacy and books, tests, and formal writing.” It differs from conversational speech in terms of “language function, vocabulary, background knowledge, text structure, syntactic complexity, and abstract thinking.”1 Another way to think of the academic language is to recognize that it represents a much higher level of literacy, a level basic to the full development of complex thinking skills.

Whether in specialized ELD courses or through the English–language arts program, students’ academic language must be continuously developed and explicitly taught as its own area of study and within all subject areas. Higher-level ELD students need explicit instruction and practice using advanced phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.3 The challenges posed by a lack of proficiency in academic language (academic literacy) are especially acute in the middle grades. The level of academic success achieved in grades six, seven, and eight is pivotal in determining the extent to which students will be prepared to pursue progressively more demanding curricula in high school. Development of proficiency in academic language is closely linked to a commitment to provide equal access to the most valued curriculum for all students.

Universal access materials that are part of reading/language arts adoptions through grade eight offer additional support for EL by providing instructional material for benchmarks and strategic interventions. Classroom teachers can utilize universal access materials in a number of ways to:

• Help students master  ELA Content Standards
• Address specific skills in  ELD proficiency levels
• Provide support in areas of difficulty such as
  • Academic language vocabulary and concept development sentence structure
  • Grammar
  • Phonologically-based spelling
  • Listening and speaking
  • Organization and delivery of oral and written communication
  • Speaking applications in context

Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English

Teachers use specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) methodologies to help EL who have reasonable fluency in English learn grade-level content in the core curriculum. In implementing strategies to build academic literacy teachers can:

• Provide examples of excellent student work. Let the students see clearly the level of academic proficiency they should be striving to achieve.
• Enunciate clearly. Let the students hear correct English spoken well.
• Demonstrate respect for primary languages other than English.
• Use controlled vocabulary. Be deliberate about introducing new words and concepts specific to the subject being learned.
• Avoid the extensive use of idioms. Check for meaning and explain the origin of the idioms.
• Use nonverbal language, including gestures, facial expressions, and dramatization, to make a point.
• Use manipulative materials and props as you introduce new material. Employ as many of the students’ senses as possible.
• Use illustrations, comparisons, and examples from daily experiences to clarify key points until the students progress to the point where they can derive meaning from abstract ideas on the printed page.
• Check frequently for understanding. Ask the students to rephrase key definitions and ideas.
• Provide an emotionally secure learning environment where it is safe to make mistakes as long as they are used as a basis for learning how to correct errors.
• Record material on tape for later review by the students.
• Rewrite key concepts from texts and other materials in simpler language to communicate difficult ideas without losing the integrity of the meaning.
• Engage the students in cooperative learning experiences. Ensure that every student in a cooperative learning group is responsible for learning new concepts and skills.
• Use peer, cross-age, and adult tutoring whenever possible. Recruit support actively.
• Use active learning strategies designed to reinforce students’ conceptual learning (e.g., experiments and projects).
• Ask the students regularly to refine and polish all-important assignments until they represent the students’ best effort.
• Grade the students on their level of proficiency in response to performance standards rather than on a class curve.
• Reinforce key concepts frequently. Watch for opportunities to do so naturally.
• Wait a sufficient amount of time for the students to think and to respond to questions. Keep from succumbing to the temptation to answer your own questions.
• Engage the students in complex reasoning experiences. Teach the students the scientific method. Involve them regularly in using it.
• Ask the students to verbalize in speech or in writing when they are ready. Help them find alternative ways to express difficult ideas, such as using visual representations.
• Summarize and review frequently. Involve the students in the process.

SDAIE with Scaffolding

Aptly characterized as an effective educational practice, SDAIE allows teachers to present rigorous academic content to all students through scaffolding for linguistic complexity which the Reading/Language Arts Framework defines as the “temporary support, guidance, or assistance provided to a student on a new or complex task.”4

The use of scaffolding may range from learning basic knowledge and skills to understanding complex principles and higher-order thought processes. Scaffolding requires that teachers observe their students and gradually hand over responsibility to them.

Scaffolding involves the teacher in modeling and demonstrating skills and providing supports at strategic points in the lesson to help students assimilate new ideas and strategies.

Students will need many opportunities for scaffold use of a word, phrase, verb tense, or sentence structure before they are able to produce or understand it independently, orally or in writing. To develop high levels of language proficiency, the teacher must provide comprehensible instruction, clear modeling, many opportunities for practice, accurate and timely feedback, and reasons to apply new language skills in new ways. Particularly in settings with few native English-speaking models, teachers need to create many opportunities for English learners to hear and use academic language for the purpose of building the linguistic competencies required to achieve grade-level content standards. “Scaffolding . . . does not involve simplifying the task; it holds the task difficulty constant, while simplifying the child’s role by means of graduated assistance from the adult expert.”5 Among the most important elements of scaffolding are the tools listed below.6 They represent functional approaches to instruction, emphasizing the movement of students from dependence to automaticity and independence and the development of academic-language proficiency through expressive oral and written communications.

• Modeling and demonstrating. The teacher directly models and demonstrates, showing students how, by walking them through the steps of an activity, process, or skill until they understand how to proceed and can demonstrate their ability to do so. The number of times a teacher needs to model and demonstrate desired learning will vary according to the needs of individual students.
  
  
• Bridging. The teacher uses the personal experiences of students, including prior knowledge or skills, to provide a bridge from the known to the unknown concepts. Teachers help students make a personal connection with the content, leading to the internalization of new learning.
• Contextualizing. The teacher helps clarify and bring to life abstract concepts by using pictures, manipulatives, or other objects and by creating analogies or metaphors based on the students’ own experiences.
  
  
• Schema building. The teacher helps students establish the connections that exist between and across concepts that may otherwise appear unrelated. This strategy helps students gain perspective about where ideas fit in the larger scheme of things. For example, diagrammatic outlines and other graphic organizers are used to compare concepts and show interrelationships.
  
  
• Metacognitive development. The teacher involves students in using strategies to monitor their own learning. In metacognition, the process of thinking about thinking, students are helped to understand how they learn and how they know. The teacher consciously focuses students’ attention on strategies for accomplishing academic tasks and helps students internalize them for later use.
  
  
• Text re-presentation or alternate presentations. The teacher helps students extend their understanding and apply them in novel formats. Students use different modes to present material being learned, including oral, written, or graphic formats, to ensure that they understand the material.

Collaborative learning

An anxiety-free classroom is necessary for the kind of risk taking required to expand language development and promote other kinds of cognitive growth. Having students collaborate in small groups and encouraging them to use expressive oral language in presenting their thoughts, feelings, and opinions about the material being studied foster an appropriate learning environment. By deepening their understanding and mastery of ideas and concepts, they increase their academic literacy.  Collaborative learning in small groups also allows students to practice and apply content taught by the teacher and encourages students with conflicting viewpoints to attempt to clarify, analyze, synthesize, speculate on, and evaluate their views as they work their way toward solutions to problems or carry out other tasks. This process (1) promotes refinement of meaning based on the diversity of the group; and (2) encourages the members to reflect on their own understanding of the curriculum content. Teachers assist students in making connections between ideas presented in class and their prior knowledge—in effect, to move gradually from street-level literacy to academic literacy.

Developing Academic Literacy in the Middle Grades

Learning strategies designed to develop academic literacy should include ensuring that students understand the significance of grade-level content and performance standards in each subject area. They should also be provided with the scoring criteria by which their performance levels will be determined. Emphasis is placed as follows:

• Standards are reviewed with students and explained prior to the start of each unit or other curricular increment. Content standards and performance standards are written at a basic adult reading level. Most middle grades students who are reading at grade level should not have difficulty reading the California content standards. For English learners and other students with reading difficulties, teachers may want to simplify the language without losing the significance of complex concepts.
  
  
• Students are helped to understand the difference between fluency in social language and proficiency in academic language. Teachers explicitly teach academic-language functions and structures and design opportunities for students to practice and apply them. In academic language the meaning must be derived from written material standing on its own. Prior association with ideas, events, or surroundings in the lives of students that help them derive meaning is limited. The ability to derive meaning from written or spoken communication lacking familiar interpretive cues lies at the heart of academic literacy.
  
  
• Vocabulary building emphasizes new terminology associated with the study of core subjects. The selection of words, phrases, or concepts is determined on the basis of language essential to deep learning of content standards. Those choices are based on language ordinarily used by professionals for a given subject. Vocabulary lists are developed collaboratively by teachers and supplemented by students.
  
  
• Students frequently participate in small study groups in which assignments are tailored to the subject and content standards being addressed in the curriculum. Small-group assignments include problem-solving or issue-oriented tasks requiring students to use new academic vocabulary and concepts.

Similarly, complex reading and expressive writing provide opportunities for students to use their new academic-language skills. Students are encouraged to connect new ideas, concepts, and vocabulary through, for example, reflective logs, quick writes, and essays. In mathematics and science students are encouraged to provide written explanations of solutions and processes used in problem solving, investigations, or research projects.

Developing Academic Literacy Through Reading

The next set of examples suggests strategies designed to practice and apply academic-language proficiency through complex reading experiences:

• Oral reading with advanced vocabulary is practiced frequently in small, heterogeneous study groups. Essays, stories, articles, or other reading materials are selected collaboratively for their relevance to the subject and content standards. Students take turns reading aloud to improve listening skills, build academic-language proficiency, and ensure comprehension of complex ideas. Although reading aloud is typically used to promote the study of literature, it can also contribute to an understanding of complex concepts in all curriculum areas.
  
  
• Reading aloud with advanced vocabulary is a variation of oral reading in which students follow the text while their teacher or a guest reads portions aloud, emphasizing fluency, expression, and clarification of complex ideas. The underlying emphasis is placed on comprehension and the use of academic language. (Reading Aloud to Students of All Ages)
  
  
• Team reading involves pairing a more able reader with a less able reader. The subject matter is linked to the curriculum. Through this approach the weaker reading skills of the less able reader are not exposed to the class, and the other team member knows that he or she is serving in a helping role. Sometimes, more able readers are recruited from the higher grades. In this approach the less able reader, feeling emotionally secure, is able to concentrate on improving his or her academic literacy. The more able reader, given extra credit, is trained to be an effective helper.
  
  
• Tutorial reading involves a teacher, a trained aide, or a tutor leading a small group of students (or sometimes an individual student). Under the leader’s direction they read, talk, think, and question their way through a book or other material related to the curriculum. Each participant should have a copy of the material being read. The leader helps the students ask questions about the reading selection and questions they might pose to the author. Advanced vocabulary is emphasized. The students are helped to find meaning in their reading as they explore concepts and use complex thinking skills.
  
  
• Classroom community reading, a variation of the previous strategy, involves having the entire class read and discuss the same book or other reading material, preferably one related to the curriculum. The teacher guides the discussion, emphasizing new vocabulary, themes, and complex ideas and generally focusing on academic-language proficiency. When done in moderation, whole-class reading, as opposed to reading in small groups, is an excellent way for teachers to know students better, observe their attitudes toward reading, examine how they read, and build a classroom-based reading community.
  
  
• Independent reading of advanced material engages students, with their teacher’s approval, in reading materials selected by the students. Self-paced, independent reading involves periodic individual conferences with the teacher, a trained aide, or a tutor. The students may meet in small groups to discuss their independent reading selections. The primary focus is placed on building confidence in reading and developing complex reasoning skills. The students continue to build academic-language proficiency, using advanced vocabulary and growing in their ability to manage complex ideas.

Developing Academic Literacy Through Writing

The next set of examples suggests strategies designed to practice and apply academic-language proficiency through complex writing experiences:

• Writing of topical drafts preferably takes place in small groups. Topics are selected from the curriculum and linked to content standards. Emphasis is placed on writing short, focused drafts that involve new vocabulary and concepts. The process often begins with a brainstorming session about the topic to involve the students in the subject. The students share their writing and help one another clarify ideas. The teacher helps the students understand that writing good drafts is an essential part of academic literacy.
  
  
• Special-interest writing occurs when students write about a particular interest related to their present learning. Or they may choose through independent study to become the class “expert.” Students who feel at ease about the subject matter often write more naturally and creatively than they would otherwise. They are asked to read the completed work of other students or read aloud to one another. They enjoy learning about the “expertness” of their peers.
  
  
• Writing with a scribe involves a student working with a teacher, a trained aide, or a tutor to compose a written assignment. This approach is suitable for students experiencing unusual difficulties in writing or being unable to write or use a computer keyboard because of a physical disability. The teacher, aide, or tutor acts as the scribe. The content results from a process in which meanings, choice of words, and topics are decided jointly. Students see that their ideas can be translated into meaningful written content and that clear thought leads to clear writing with good structure and logical expression.
  
  
• Quick writing encourages fluency of thought and self-confidence. It provides short, timed writing assignments requiring students to write about a subject related to their studies as quickly as possible and without editing. They are also told to use new vocabulary and are reminded that the task is intended to show proficiency in academic language. Quick writing can be used to free up students’ knowledge and understanding of a particular subject or issue because it avoids constricting the students’ thoughts to the limits of their ability to write correctly. Quick writing is especially useful in working with second-language students or native speakers of English whose writing skills are limited because of learning deficits.
  
  
• Essay writing illustrates a student’s ability to take a point of view and, through a series of logical arguments based on factual information, lead the reader to a reasoned conclusion. Essays are to be measured not by their length but by the depth of their content. They are especially attractive to teachers because they can provide substantial insight into the levels of academic literacy achieved by the students. Although essay writing is appropriate for any content area, it should relate to the content standards for the class.
  
  
• Process writing describes problem-solving strategies, experimental procedures, and summaries from which a narrative outline of activities is produced. Because process writing is usually subject specific, it provides strong evidence of students’ ability to use specialized vocabulary correctly and effectively, thereby demonstrating their levels of proficiency in written academic language.
  
  
• Academic journaling provides an ongoing record of learning by individual students, differing greatly from an ordinary diary. Rather than providing a free flow of ideas and emotions related to personal issues, academic journaling involves focused writing in which students reflect on their assignments. Examples of appropriate subjects for academic journaling are observations, new knowledge, and skills. Students understand that their journals, unlike diaries, will be subject to teacher review because their content provides a valid means of assessing important aspects of individual progress. Included is the ability to demonstrate academic-language proficiency through use of subject-specific vocabulary, conceptualize complex ideas, and engage in effective written communication of information. When teachers are sensitive to and respectful of their students’ efforts to do journaling, they often observe dramatic success. The process then becomes an integral part of the curriculum.
  
  Health, physical education, and history–social science also provide many opportunities for writing assignments that involve interpretation of important activities, issues, or events in the context of real-life experiences. Literature and the visual and performing arts equally provide opportunities for students to use expressive writing as they
  
  
  1. explore their individual responses to historically or culturally significant works;
  2. explain the intent of the authors or artists; or
  3. analyze and clarify their ideas and connect them to other works. All teachers of English learners are reading and language development teachers, regardless of their content area. In planning effective instruction, content-area teachers should consider:
     • Content-specific vocabulary required for conceptual understanding
     • Language complexities, including language forms
     • Demands of the text structure of textbooks and other readings, including chapter and section headings, charts, graphs, and maps
     • Reading strategies required for comprehension of that type of text
     • Ways of both accessing and building student background knowledge of the content
     • Cognitive processes students must employ to meet content demands
     • Ways in which to engage students’ interactions to further both linguistic and conceptual goals of the lesson.

Effective SDAIE includes consideration of these areas. Simply accessing prior knowledge and ensuring student motivation and interaction—while critical—are not enough to ensure student learning. As teachers plan instruction, they must thoughtfully consider language, content, and the cognitive process involved in the learning task.7

Footnotes
1Reading/Language Arts Framework, pp. 234–35.
2R. Scarcella, “Effective Language Instruction for English Learners.” Paper presented at the Standards-Based Evaluation and Accountability Institute for English Learners and Immigrant Students: A Focus on English Language Development, sponsored by the California Department of Education, Santa Barbara, Calif., December 4, 2000; R.Gersten and S.Baker, “What We Know About Effective Practices for English-Language Learners,” Exceptional Children, Vol. 66, No.4 (2000), 459–70; L. Wong Fillmore and C. Snow, “What Teachers Need to Know About Language (2000)" (PDF; Outside Source).
3California Reading and Literature Project (binder materials for the California Professional Development Institute for Teachers of English Learners, 2000).
4Reading/Language Arts Framework, p. 279.
5P.M. Greenfield, “A Theory of the Teacher in the Learning Activities of Everyday Life,” in Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Contexts. Edited by B. Rogoff and J. Lave. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984, pp. 117–38.
6Aida Walqui-van Lier, “Sheltered Instruction: Doing It Right” (1992; California Reading and Literature Project, 2000, binder materials).
7S. Dutro, "Reading Instruction for English Language Learners: Ten Pedagogical Considerations" (California Reading and Literature Project, 2000, binder materials).

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